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Bruger:Pugilist/Sandkasse/Ruslands historie

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https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2

Dekabristopstanden
Del af Revolutionerne i 1820’erne
Dekabristerne på Peters Torv i Sankt Petersborg.
Dekabristerne på Peters Torv i Sankt Petersborg.
Dato 26. december 1825 G.S.
(14. december 1825 N.S)
Sted Sankt Petersborg, Det Russiske Kejserrige Rusland
Resultat Regeringen nedkæmpet oprøret
  • Deltagerne i oprøret henrettet eller deporteret til Sibirien
Parter
Rusland Det nordlige dekabristforbund Rusland Det Russiske Kejserrige
Ledere
  • Sergej Petrovitj Trubetskoj
  • Jevgenij Obolenskij
  • Nikita Muravjov
  • Pavel Pestel (henrettet)
  • Pjotr Kakhovskij (henrettet)
Tab
3.000 soldater 9.000 soldater

Dekabristopstanden (russisk: Восстание декабристов, translit.: Vosstanie dekabristov, også kaldet Dekabristoprøret) var et kupforsøg, der fandt sted i Sankt Petersborg, hovedstaden i Det Russiske Kejserrige, den 14. december(jul.: 26. december)[a] 1825 udløst af kejser Aleksandr 1.'s pludselige død.

Aleksandrs forventede tronfølger, storhertug Konstantin, havde uden hoffets vidende afslået at overtage tronen, og Konstantins yngre bror Nikolaj Pavlovitj besteg tronen som "imperator" (kejser) som Nikolaj 1. af Rusland. Store dele af den kejserlige russiske hær havde svoret loyalitet til Kejser Nikolaj 1., men en en gruppe officerer, hvoraf mange var fra livgarden, forsøgte at forhindre Nikolaj i at overtage tronen i et forsøg på at afskaffe autokrati og livegenskabet og at opnå en ændring af det russiske politiske system.

Selvom oprørerne var svækket af uenighed mellem deres ledere, konfronterede de med en styrke på ca. 3.000 mand loyalisterne uden for Dumaen i nærværelse af en stor folkemængde. Under tumulten blev kejserens udsending, Mikhail Miloradovitj, dræbt. Herefter åbnede loyalisterne ild med tungt artilleri, hvilket spredte oprørerne. Efterfølgende blev mange af oprørerne dødsdømt, sendt i fængsel eller i eksil i Sibirien. Oprørerne blev kendt som Dekabristerne.(russisk: декабристы).

Opstanden og dens mål havde en stærk resonans i det russiske samfund, hvilket væsentligt påvirkede det socio-politiske liv under Nikolaj 1.'s regeringstid.

Baggrund redigér

Da Aleksandr 1. i 1801 tiltrådte som russisk "imperator" (kejser, zar) var han indstillet på at reformere det russiske samfund i en mere liberal retning og i overensstemmelse med de liberale strømninger, der gik i gennem Europa på dette tidspunkt. I begyndelsen af Aleksandr 1.'s regeringstid blev gennemført visse reformer i det russiske samfund. Napoleonskrigene, og ikke mindst Napoleons invasion af Rusland i 1812 medførte store omvæltninger i det russiske samfund. Ved afslutningen af Napoleonskrigene, hvor Rusland stod som en af sejrherrerne, fik russiske officerer bl.a. gennem deltagelse i indtoget i Paris en mulighed for at stifte bekendtskab med mere vestlige og liberale samfund, hvilket gav grobund for en række selskaber i officerskredse, der ønskede yderligere reformer i samfundet. Et af tidens store spørgsmål i Rusland var livegenskabet, der indebar, at størstedelen af Ruslands befolkning levede under slavelignende forhold. Livegenskabets ophævelse blev kædet sammen med en indskrænkning af monarkens beføjelser.

Der dannedes i årene fra 1814 og senere en række mere eller mindre hemmelige selskaber med deltagelse af officerer, der havde til formål at arbejde for en reformering af det russiske samfund, herunder en afskaffelse af livegenskabet. I 1818 blev i værksat arbejde for at udarbejde en ny forfatning for Rusland samtidig med, at livegenskabet blev ophævet i de baltiske provinser i årene 1816-1819.[1] I perioden opstod uro i dele af det russiske samfund, hvilket Aleksandr 1. opfattede som udslag af den politiske liberalisering, hvilket fik ham til at gå i en mere konservativ retning.[2]

Der blev oprettet flere mere eller mindre hemmelige selskaber med målet at reformere det russiske samfund i tiden efter 1814. Centrale blandt disse var "Frelsens Union" dannet i 1816 i Skt. Petersborg og "Velstandens Union" dannet i 1818 i Moskva. Selskaberne blev i 1821/1822 omorganiseret og herefter fremstod som de væsentlige hemmelige selskaber det "Sydlige", der var aktiv i Ukraine, og det "Nordlige", der havde centrum i Sankt Petersborg. I september 1825 sluttede De Forenede Livegnes Samfund, der blev grundlagt af brødrene Borisov, til det sydlige selskab.

I det nordlige samfund blev hovedrollen spillet af Nikita Muravjov, Aleksandr Muravjov, Sergej Trubetskoj og senere den berømte digter Kondraty Ryleev, der samlede de militante republikanere omkring ham. I det sydlige samfund var lederen oberst Pavel Pestel.


bl.a. med indflydelse af greve Mikhail Speranskij, der dog senere blev landsforvist.

Returning from exile in 1819, Speransky was appointed as the governor of Siberia, with the task of reforming local government.


Baggrund for opstanden Hovedartikel: Interregnum af 1825 Konspiratorerne besluttede at drage fordel af den vanskelige juridiske situation, der havde udviklet sig omkring rettighederne til tronen efter Alexander I's død. På den ene side var der et hemmeligt dokument, der bekræftede den langvarige abdikation af brorens trone ved siden af den barnløse Alexander i anciennitet, Konstantin Pavlovich[6], hvilket gav en fordel til den næste bror, Nikolai Pavlovich, som var ekstremt upopulær blandt den højeste militære og bureaukratiske elite. På den anden side, selv før opdagelsen af dette dokument, skyndte Nikolai Pavlovich, under pres fra guvernør-generalen i Skt. Petersborg, grev M. A. Miloradovich, at give afkald på sine rettigheder til tronen til fordel for Konstantin Pavlovich.

Den 27. november (9. december) 1825 blev befolkningen svoret ind til Konstantin. Formelt optrådte en ny kejser i Rusland, og flere mønter med hans billede blev endda præget. Konstantin accepterede ikke tronen, men gav ikke formelt afkald på den som kejser. En tvetydig og ekstremt spændt situation i interregnum blev skabt. Nicholas besluttede at erklære sig kejser. Den 14. december 1825 blev den anden ed udnævnt - "re-ed". Det øjeblik, som Decembrists havde ventet på, var kommet - en magtændring. Medlemmer af det hemmelige samfund besluttede at tale.

Usikkerheden varede i meget lang tid. Efter den anden abdikation af Konstantin Pavlovich fra tronen anerkendte senatet som følge af en lang natsession den 13.-14. december 1825 Nikolai Pavlovits juridiske rettigheder til tronen.

Union of Salvation and Union of Prosperity redigér

Historians have noted that the United States Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution may also have influenced Decembrists, as they did other nations.[3] The constitution written by Nikita Muravyov was highly similar to the United States Constitution. But the Decembrists were against slavery in the United States. They worked to free any slaves and serfs from all countries in Russia immediately.[4] Pestel and his followers opposed the United States' federal model in peaceful times as threatening to the would-be Russian/United Slavic federation; they only approved the US revolutionary model. While agreeing with Pestel that the American revolutionary model could be the best form for Russia, the Polish patriotic society would not agree to participate in establishing a federation. They wanted a United States-style republic or other state, with Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to be included in a unitary Poland (i.e., more or less the territory of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), without any Russian involvement in the affairs of these territories.[5]

In 1816, several officers of the Imperial Russian Guard founded a society known as the Union of Salvation, or of the Faithful and True Sons of the Fatherland. The society acquired a revolutionary cast after it was joined by the idealistic Pavel Pestel. The charter was similar to charters of the organizations of carbonari. Pestel was supported by Yakushkin when there were rumors that the emperor had intended to transfer the capital from Saint Petersburg to Warsaw, and to liberate all peasants without the consent of Russian landlords. They would not be able to influence a government based in Warsaw. Yakushkin intended to kill the emperor even before the revolution. When the society consisting of Russian landlords had refused to kill the emperor based on such rumors, Yakushkin left the society. The more liberal Mikhail Muravyov-Vilensky created a new charter similar to that of Tugendbund. It did not have revolutionary plans and the society was called the Union of Prosperity. It was still considered illegal and similar to masonic lodges. (The small Order of Russian knights, excepting its prominent member Alexander von Benckendorff, also joined the Union of Prosperity, together with the members of the Union of Salvation.[6])

After a mutiny in the Semenovsky Regiment in 1820, the society decided to suspend activity in 1821. Two groups, however, continued to function secretly: a Southern Society, based at Tulchin, a small garrison town in Ukraine, in which Pestel was the outstanding figure, and a Northern Society, based at Saint Petersburg, led by guard officers Nikita Muraviev, Prince S. P. Trubetskoy and Prince Eugene Obolensky.[7] The political aims of the more moderate Northern Society were a British-style constitutional monarchy with a limited franchise. They envisioned that it could be replaced with a republic in the future but only according to the will of the people. They also believed there should be a legislative assembly and did not call for the execution of the imperial family. They supported the abolition of serfdom, according to the interests of Russian landlords, i.e. with land to be retained by landlords, in a style similar to the abolition of serfdom in Baltic provinces. They also supported equality before the law. The Southern Society, under Pestel's influence, was more radical and wanted to abolish the monarchy, establish a republic, similar to the Union of Salvation, and contrary to the Union of Salvation plans, to redistribute land, taking half into state ownership and dividing the rest among the peasants.[7][8] The Society of United Slavs (also known as the Slavic Union – Pan-Slavism) was established in Novograd-Volynsky in the Ukraine in 1823. Its never-written program was similar to that of the Southern Society but the main emphasis was on the equal federation of Russia (including Ukraine), Poland, Moldavia (including Bessarabia) with the attachment of Wallachia, Transylvania, Hungary (including Slovakia, Slovenia, Vojvodina, the Carpatho-Ukraine aka Zarkarpattia), Croatia, Serbia, Dalmatia, the Czech lands of Bohemia and Moravia, i.e. all Slavic & Vlach countries with the exception of Bulgaria and Macedonia, in the future. This society joined the Southern Society and adopted its program in exchange for the recognition of the Slavic federation zeal by the Southern society in September 1825.[9][10]

At Senate Square redigér

  Hovedartikel: Russian interregnum of 1825.
 
Decembrist Revolt, a painting by Vasilij Perov showing the killing of Mikhail Miloradovich by Pyotr Kakhovsky

When Emperor Alexander I died on Skabelon:OldStyleDate, the royal guards swore allegiance to the presumed successor, Alexander's brother Konstantin. When Konstantin made his renunciation public, and Nicholas stepped forward to assume the throne, the Northern Society acted. With the capital in temporary confusion, and one oath to Konstantin having already been sworn, the society scrambled in secret meetings to convince regimental leaders not to swear allegiance to Nicholas. These efforts culminated in the Decembrist Revolt. The leaders of the society elected Prince Sergei Trubetskoy as interim ruler.[kilde mangler]

On the morning of Skabelon:OldStyleDateNY, a group of officers commanding about 3,000 men (elements of Life-Guards Moscow Regiment, Grenadier Life Guards Regiment, and Naval Equipage of the Guard) assembled in Senate Square, where they refused to swear allegiance to the new tsar, Nicholas I, proclaiming instead their loyalty to Konstantin. They expected to be joined by the rest of the troops stationed in Saint Petersburg, but they were disappointed. The revolt was hampered when it was deserted by its supposed leader Prince Trubetskoy. His second-in-command, Colonel Bulatov, also vanished from the scene. After a hurried consultation, the rebels appointed Prince Eugene Obolensky as a replacement leader.[11]

For hours, there was a stand-off between the 3,000 rebels and the 9,000 loyal troops stationed outside the Senate building, with some desultory shooting from the rebel side. A vast crowd of civilian on-lookers began fraternizing with the rebels but did not join the action.[12] Eventually, Nicholas (the new tsar) appeared in person at the square and sent Count Mikhail Miloradovich to parley with the rebels. Miloradovich was fatally shot in the back by Pyotr Kakhovsky while delivering a public address, then stabbed by Yevgeny Obolensky. At the same time, a rebelling squad of grenadiers, led by Lieutenant Nikolay Panov, entered the Winter Palace but failed to seize it and retreated.[kilde mangler]

After spending most of the day in fruitless attempts to parley with the rebel force, Nicholas ordered a cavalry charge by Her Sovereign Majesty Empress Maria Theodorovna's Chevalier Guard Regiment that slipped on the icy cobbles and retired in disorder. Eventually, at the end of the day, Nicholas ordered three artillery pieces to open fire with grapeshot ammunition to devastating effect. To avoid the slaughter, the rebels broke and ran. Some attempted to regroup on the frozen surface of the river Neva to the north. However, they were targeted by the artillery and suffered many casualties. As the ice was broken by the cannon fire, many sank. The revolt in the north came to an end. There was a rumor that during the nighttime, police and loyal army units were detached to clean the city and the Neva river, as many of the dead, dying, and wounded had been cast into it.[13]

Arrests and trial redigér

Yderligere information: Chernigov Regiment revolt
 
Monument to the Decembrists at the execution site in Saint Petersburg
 
Inscription on the monument to the Decembrists at the execution site in Saint Petersburg.
The text reads: На этом месте, 13/25 Июля 1826 года, были казнены Декабристы П. Пестель, К. Рылеев, П. Каховский, С. Муравьев-Апостол, М. Бестужев-Рюмин. (engelsk: "At this place, 13/25 July 1826, were executed the Decembrists P. Pestel, K. Ryleyev, P. Kakhovsky, S. Muravyov-Apostol and M. Bestuzhev-Ryumin")

While the Northern Society scrambled in the days leading up to the revolt, the Southern Society (based in Tulchin) took a serious blow. The day before (Skabelon:OldStyleDateNY), acting on reports of treason, the police arrested Pavel Pestel. It took two weeks for the Southern Society to learn of the events in the capital.[14] Meanwhile, other members of the leadership were arrested. The Southern Society, and a nationalistic group called the United Slavs, discussed revolt. When learning of the location of some of the arrested men, the United Slavs freed them by force. One of the freed men, Sergey Muravyov-Apostol, assumed leadership of the revolt. After converting the soldiers of Vasilkov to the cause, Muraviev-Apostol easily captured the city. The rebelling army was confronted by superior forces that were heavily armed with artillery loaded with grapeshot.[15]

On Skabelon:OldStyleDate, the rebels met defeat, and the surviving leaders were sent to Saint Petersburg to stand trial with the northern leaders. The Decembrists were taken to the Winter Palace to be interrogated, tried, and convicted. The murderer Kakhovsky was executed by hanging, together with four other leading Decembrists: Pavel Pestel; the poet Kondraty Ryleyev; Sergey Muravyov-Apostol; and Mikhail Bestuzhev-Ryumin. A further 31 Decembrists facing the death penalty were instead imprisoned. Other Decembrists were exiled to Siberia, Kazakhstan, and the Far East.[kilde mangler]

Suspicion also fell on several eminent persons who were on friendly terms with the Decembrist leaders and could have been aware of their clandestine organizations, notably Alexander Pushkin, Aleksander Griboyedov, and Aleksey Yermolov.[kilde mangler] 

-->

Decembrists in Siberia redigér

On Skabelon:OldStyleDate, the first party of Decembrist convicts began its exodus to Siberia. Among this group were Prince Trubetskoi, Prince Obolensky, Peter and Andrei Borisov, Prince Volkonsky, and Artamon Muraviev, all of them bound for the mines at Nerchinsk.[16][17] The journey eastward was fraught with hardship, yet for some it offered refreshing changes in scenery and peoples following imprisonment. Decembrist Nikolay Vasil’yevich Basargin was unwell when he set out from Saint Petersburg, but he recovered his strength on the move; his memoirs depict the journey to Siberia in a cheerful light, full of praise for the "common people" and commanding landscapes.[18]

Not all Decembrists could identify with Basargin's positive experience. Because of their lower social standing, "soldier-Decembrists" experienced the emperor's vengeance in full. Sentenced by court-martial, many of these "commoners" received thousands of lashes. Those that survived went to Siberia on foot, chained alongside common criminals.[19]

Fifteen out of 124 Decembrists were convicted of "state-crimes" by the Supreme Criminal Court, and sentenced to "exile-to-settlement".[20] These men were sent directly to isolated locales, such as Berezov, Narym, Surgut, Pelym, Irkutsk, Yakutsk, and Vilyuysk, among others. Few Russians inhabited these places: The populations consisted mainly of Siberian aborigines, such as Tunguses, Yakuts, Tatars, Ostyaks, Mongols, and Buryats.[21]

Of all those exiled, the largest group of prisoners was sent to Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai, transferred three years later to Petrovsky Zavod, near Nerchinsk.[22] This group, sentenced to hard labor, included principal leaders of the Decembrist movement as well as the members of the United Slavs. Siberian Governor-General Lavinsky argued that it was easiest to control a large, concentrated group of convicts,[21] and Emperor Nicholas I pursued this policy in order to maximize surveillance and to limit revolutionaries’ contact with local populations.[23] Concentration facilitated the guarding of prisoners, but it also allowed the Decembrists to continue to exist as a community.[21] This was especially true at Chita. The move to Petrovsky Zavod, however, forced Decembrists to divide into smaller groups; the new location was compartmentalized with an oppressive sense of order. Convicts could no longer congregate casually. Although nothing could destroy the Decembrists’ conception of fraternity, Petrovsky Zavod forced them to live more private lives.[24] Owing to a number of imperial sentence reductions, exiles started to complete their labor terms years ahead of schedule. The labor was of minimal travail; Stanislav Leparsky, commandant of Petrovsky Zavod, failed to enforce Decembrists’ original labor sentences, and criminal convicts carried out much of the work in place of the revolutionaries. Most Decembrists left Petrovsky Zavod between 1835 and 1837, settling in or near Irkutsk, Minusinsk, Kurgan, Tobol’sk, Turinsk, and Yalutorovsk.[23] Those Decembrists who had already lived in or visited Siberia, such as Dimitri Zavalishin, prospered upon leaving Petrovsky Zavod's confines, but most found it physically arduous and more psychologically unnerving than prison life.[25]

 
Decembrists in Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai, 1885

The Siberian population met the Decembrists with great hospitality. Natives played central roles in keeping lines of communication open among Decembrists, friends, and relatives. Most merchants and state employees were also sympathetic. To the masses, the Decembrist exiles were "generals who had refused to take the oath to Nicholas I." They were great figures that had suffered political persecution for their loyalty to the people. On the whole, indigenous Siberian populations greatly respected the Decembrists and were extremely hospitable in their reception of them.[26]

Upon arrival at places of settlement, exiles had to comply with extensive regulations under a strict governmental regime. Local police watched, regulated, and notated every move that Decembrists attempted to make. Dimitri Zavalishin was thrown into prison for failing to remove his hat before a lieutenant. Not only were political and social activities carefully monitored and prevented, there was interference regarding religious convictions. Local clergy accused Prince Shakhovskoi of "heresy", due to his interest in natural sciences. Authorities investigated and restrained other Decembrists for not attending church.[27] The regime thoroughly censored all correspondences, especially communication with relatives. Messages were scrupulously reviewed by both officials in Siberia and the Third Division of the political intelligence service at Saint Petersburg. This screening process necessitated dry, careful wording on the part of Decembrists. In the words of Bestuzhev, correspondence bore a "lifeless ... imprint of officiality."[28] Under the settlement regime, allowances were extremely meager. Certain Decembrists, including the Volkonskys, the Murav’yovs, and the Trubetskoys, were rich, but the majority of exiles had no money, and were forced to live off a mere 15 desyatins (about 16 hectares) of land, the allotment granted to each settler. Decembrists, with little to no knowledge of the land, attempted to eke out a living on wretched soil with next to no equipment. Financial aid from relatives and wealthier comrades saved many; others perished.[29]

Despite extensive restrictions, limitations, and hardships, Decembrists believed that they could improve their situation through personal initiative. A constant stream of petitions came out of Petrovsky Zavod addressed to General Leparskii and Emperor Nicholas I.[30] Most of the petitions were written by Decembrists’ wives who had cast aside social privileges and comfort to follow their husbands into exile.[31] These wives joined under the leadership of Princess Mariia Volkonskaia, and by 1832, through relentless petitions, managed to secure for their men formal cancellation of labor requirements, and several privileges, including the right of husbands to live with their wives in privacy.[30] Decembrists managed to gain transfers and allowances through persuasive petitions as well as through the intervention of family members. This process of petitioning, and the resultant concessions made by the tsar and officials, was and would continue to be a standard practice of political exiles in Siberia. The chain of bureaucratic procedures and orders linking Saint Petersburg to Siberian administration was often circumvented or ignored. These breaks in bureaucracy afforded exiles a small capacity for betterment and activism.[32]

Wives of many Decembrists followed their husbands into exile. The expression Decembrist wife is a Russian symbol of the devotion of a wife to her husband. Maria Volkonskaya, the wife of the Decembrist leader Sergei Volkonsky, notably followed her husband to his exile in Irkutsk. Despite the spartan conditions of this banishment, Sergei Volkonsky and his wife Maria took opportunities to celebrate the liberalising mode of their exile. Sergei took to wearing an untrimmed beard (rejecting Peter the Great's reforms[33] and salon fashion), wearing peasant dress and socialising with many of his peasant associates with whom he worked the land at his farm in Urik. Maria, equally, established schools, a foundling hospital and a theater for the local population.[34] Sergei returned after 30 years of his exile had elapsed, though his titles and land remained under royal possession. Other exiles preferred to remain in Siberia after their sentences were served, preferring its relative freedom to the stifling intrigues of Moscow and Saint Petersburg, and after years of exile there was not much for them to return to. Many Decembrists thrived in exile, in time becoming landowners and farmers. In later years, they became idols of the populist movement of the 1860s and the 1870s as the Decembrists' advocacy of reform (including the abolition of serfdom) won them many admirers, including the writer Leo Tolstoy.[kilde mangler]

During their time in exile, the Decembrists fundamentally influenced Siberian life. Their presence was most definitely felt culturally and economically, political activity being so far removed from the "pulse of national life" so as to be negligible.[35] While in Petrovsky Zavod, Decembrists taught each other foreign languages, arts and crafts, and musical instruments. They established "academies" made up of libraries, schools, and symposia.[23] In their settlements, Decembrists were fierce advocates of education, and founded many schools for natives, the first of which opened at Nerchinsk. Schools were also founded for women, and soon exceeded capacity. Decembrists contributed greatly to the field of agriculture, introducing previously unknown crops such as vegetables, tobacco, rye, buckwheat, and barley, and advanced agricultural methods such as hothouse cultivation. Trained doctors among the political exiles promoted and organized medical aid. The homes of prominent exiles like Prince Sergei Volkonsky and Prince Sergei Trubetskoi became social centers of their locales. All throughout Siberia, the Decembrists sparked an intellectual awakening: literary writings, propaganda, newspapers, and books from European Russia began to circulate the eastern provinces, the local population developing a capacity for critical political observation.[36] The Decembrists even held a certain influence within Siberian administration; Dimitry Zavalishin played a critical role in developing and advocating Russian Far East policy. Although the Decembrists lived in isolation, their scholarly activities encompassed Siberia at large, including its culture, economy, administration, population, geography, botany, and ecology.[37] Despite restricted circumstances, the Decembrists accomplished an extraordinary amount, and their work was deeply appreciated by Siberians.[kilde mangler]

On 26 August 1856, with the ascent of Alexander II to the throne, the Decembrists received amnesty, and their rights, privileges were restored. Their children obtained rights, privileges and even titles of their fathers (such as princes) even if their fathers' titles were not restored. However, not all chose to return to the West. Some were financially inhibited, others had no family, and many were weak with old age. To many, Siberia had become home. Those that did return to European Russia did so with enthusiasm for the enforcement of the Emancipation Reforms of 1861.[38] The exile of the Decembrists led to the permanent implantation of an intelligentsia in Siberia. For the first time, a cultural, intellectual, and political elite came to Siberian society as permanent residents; they integrated with the country and participated alongside natives in its development.[39]

Assessment redigér

With the failure of the Decembrists, Russia's autocracy would continue for almost a century, although serfdom would be officially abolished in 1861 and the parliaments in Russia and Finland would be established in 1905. Finland had a parliament since Alexander I, but the number of electors was limited. The Russian Constitution of 1905 was called "The basic laws" as the Decembrists had called it. Though defeated, the Decembrists did effect some change on the regime. Their dissatisfaction forced Nicholas I to turn his attention inward to address the issues of the empire. He included many Decembrists who had joined his forces on the Senate Square and did not ultimately support the revolt in spite of their participation in Decembrist meetings into his government (such as Benkendorf, appointed to supervise the human rights, Muraviev-Vilensky and others). In 1826, Speransky was appointed by Nicholas I to head the Second Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, a committee formed to codify Russian law. Under his leadership, the committee produced a publication of the complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, containing 35,993 enactments. This codification called the "Full Collection of Laws" (Polnoye Sobraniye Zakonov) was presented to Nicholas I, and formed the basis for the "Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire" (Svod Zakonov Rossiskoy Imperii), the positive law valid for the Russian Empire. Speransky's liberal ideas were subsequently scrutinized and elaborated by Konstantin Kavelin and Boris Chicherin. Although the revolt was a proscribed topic during Nicholas’ reign, Alexander Herzen placed the profiles of executed Decembrists on the cover of his radical periodical Polar Star. Alexander Pushkin addressed poems to his Decembrist friends; Nikolai Nekrasov, whose father served together with Decembrists in Ukraine, wrote a long poem about the Decembrist wives; and Leo Tolstoy started writing a novel on that liberal movement, which would later evolve into War and Peace. In the Soviet era Yuri Shaporin produced an opera entitled Dekabristi (The Decembrists), about the revolt, with the libretto written by Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy. It premiered at the Bolshoi Theatre on 23 June 1953.[40]

To some extent, the Decembrists were in the tradition of a long line of palace revolutionaries of 1725–1825 who wanted to place their candidate on the throne, but many Decembrists also wanted to implement either classical liberalism or a moderate conservatism contrary to the more Jacobin, centralizing program of Pavel Pestel or the pan-Slavic confederation-advocating revolutionaries of the "Society of United Slavs".[41] The majority of Decembrists were not members of illegal organizations similar to the participants of palace revolutions[bør uddybes][kilde mangler]. Some were members of the Union of Prosperity only, sympathetic to an official, pro-governmental fairly conservative program. But their revolt, unlike previous Romanov palace revolutions, has been considered the beginning of a revolutionary movement. The uprising was the first open breach between the government and reformist elements of the Russian nobility, which would subsequently widen.[42][43] -->

References redigér

  1. ^ David Moon. "The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia". Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2001. Page xiv
  2. ^ Sherman, R and Pearce, R (2002) Pg. 23
  3. ^ Bolkhovitinov, Nikolai N. (1999). "The Declaration of Independence: A View from Russia". The Journal of American History. 85 (4): 1389-1398. doi:10.2307/2568261. JSTOR 2568261 – via JSTOR.
  4. ^ A. Etkind. Another freedom.
  5. ^ O'Meara, P. (17 februar 2016). The Decembrist Pavel Pestel: Russia's First Republican. Springer. ISBN 9780230504608 – via Google Books.{{cite book}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  6. ^ Дружинин Н. М. Революционное движение в России в XIX веке. М., 1985. С.323. Нечкина М. В. Движение декабристов. Т.1. М., 1955. С.134.
  7. ^ a b Peter Neville (2003) Russia: A Complete History: 120-1
  8. ^ "Павел Иванович Пестель | Государственное управление в России в портретах".
  9. ^ в 20:42, Александр Федотиков 12 09 2016 (4 juli 2020). "Общество соединённых славян – народные декабристы". histerl.ru.{{cite news}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  10. ^ Горбачевский И. И. Записки. Письма. – М., 1963. Нечкина М. В. Общество соединенных славян. – М.; Л., 1927. Оксман Ю. Г. Из истории агитационно-пропагандистской литературы 20-х гг. XIX в. // Очерки из истории движения декабристов: Сб. ст. – М., 1954.
  11. ^ Edward Crankshaw (1978) The Shadow of the Winter Palace. London, Penguin: 14–16
  12. ^ Edward Crankshaw (1978) The Shadow of the Winter Palace. London, Penguin: 15–16
  13. ^ Edward Crankshaw (1978) The Shadow of the Winter Palace. London, Penguin: 13–18
  14. ^ Материалы следственного дела С. И. Муравьёва-Апостола
  15. ^ "Декабрист Евгений Оболенский о подготовке восстания на Сенатской площади". homsk.
  16. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 221
  17. ^ Kennan, George (1891). Siberia and the Exile System. London: James R. Osgood, McIlvaine & Co. s. 280.
  18. ^ G. R. V. Barratt, Voices in Exile (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1974), 210
  19. ^ Andrew A. Gentes, "Other Decembrists: The Chizov Case and Lutskii Affair As Signifiers of The Decembrists in Siberia", Slavonica, Vol. 13, No. 2, (2007): 140
  20. ^ Andrew A. Gentes, "Other Decembrists: The Chizov Case and Lutskii Affair as Signifiers of The Decembrists in Siberia", Slavonica, Vol. 13, No. 2, (2007): 135
  21. ^ a b c Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 227
  22. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 213
  23. ^ a b c Andrew A. Gentes, "Other Decembrists: The Chizov Case and Lutskii Affair As Signifiers of The Decembrists in Siberia", Slavonica, Vol. 13, No. 2, (2007): 136
  24. ^ G. R. V. Barratt, Voices in Exile (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1974), 274
  25. ^ G. R. V. Barratt, Voices in Exile (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1974), 209
  26. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 228
  27. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 231–232
  28. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 233
  29. ^ G. R. V. Barratt, Voices in Exile (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1974), 303–304
  30. ^ a b Andrew A. Gentes, "Other Decembrists: The Chizov Case and Lutskii Affair As Signifiers of The Decembrists in Siberia", Slavonica, Vol. 13, No. 2, (2007): 137
  31. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 243
  32. ^ Andrew A. Gentes, "Other Decembrists: The Chizov Case and Lutskii Affair as Signifiers of The Decembrists in Siberia", Slavonica, Vol. 13, No. 2, (2007): 139
  33. ^ When Peter introduced a more systematic form of administration in the Russian Empire through the "table of ranks", he also reformed aristocratic culture. Bureaucrats now served the state, wore European dress and had to conform to certain presentational standards (i.e., they must not wear a beard, which was associated with the old aristocracy, or the Boyar)
  34. ^ Figes, O (2002) p. 97
  35. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 244
  36. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 243–247
  37. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 252–255
  38. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 259
  39. ^ Anatole G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1937), 256–260
  40. ^ Arthur Jacobs and Stanley Sadie (1996) The Wordsworth Book of Opera: 555
  41. ^ "Decembrist movement". www.encyclopediaofukraine.com.
  42. ^ "krotov.info". www.krotov.info.
  43. ^ "Декабристы: Становление // Николай Троицкий". scepsis.net.

Sources redigér

Further reading redigér

  • Crankshaw, E. (1976) The Shadow of the Winter Palace: Russia's Drift to Revolution, 1825–1917, New York, Viking Press.
  • Eidelman, Natan (1985) Conspiracy against the tsar, Moscow, Progress Publishers, 294 p. (Translation from the Russian by Cynthia Carlile.)
  • Figes, Orlando (2002) Natasha's Dance: a Cultural History of Russia, London, ISBN 0-7139-9517-3.
  • Grey, Ian. (1973) "The Decembrists: Russia's First Revolutionaries, 1825" History Today (Sept 1973), Vol. 23 Issue 9, pp 656–663 online.
  • Mazour, A.G. (1937) The First Russian Revolution, 1825: The Decembrist movement, its origins, development, and significance, Stanford University Press.
  • Rabow-Edling, Susanna (maj 2007). "The Decembrists and the Concept of a Civic Nation". Nationalities Papers. 35 (2): 369-391. doi:10.1080/00905990701254391. S2CID 145454166.{{cite journal}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  • Sherman, Russell & Pearce, Robert (2002) Russia 1815–81, Hodder & Stoughton.
  • Trigos, Ludmilla. (2009) The Decembrist myth in Russian culture (Springer)
  • Ulam, Adam B. (1981) Russia's Failed Revolutions: From the Decembrists to the Dissidents ch 1.
  • Whittock, Michael. "Russia's December Revolution, 1825" History Today (Aug 1957) 7#8 pp530–537.

External links redigér




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