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[[File:Thoma Loneliness.jpg|thumb|''Loneliness'' by [[Hans Thoma]] ([[National Museum, Warsaw|National Museum]] in [[Warsaw]])]]
== Kritik und Kontroversen ==
{{emotion}}
Der Begriff der toxic masculinity ist seit seiner Prägung vielfach auf Kritik gestoßen und wird kontrovers diskutiert.
'''Ensomhed''' er en ubehagelig [[Følelse (emotion)|følelse]] af at være socialt isoleret. is an unpleasant [[emotion]]al response to perceived [[Social isolation|isolation]]. Loneliness is also described as [[Psychological pain|social pain]]—a psychological mechanism which motivates individuals to seek [[social connection]]s. It is often associated with an unwanted lack of connection and intimacy. Loneliness overlaps and yet is distinct from [[solitude]]. Solitude is simply the state of being apart from others; not everyone who experiences solitude feels lonely. As a subjective emotion, loneliness can be felt even when surrounded by other people; one who feels lonely, is lonely. The causes of loneliness are varied. They include social, mental, emotional, and environmental factors.
 
Research has shown that loneliness is found throughout society, including among people in marriages along with other strong relationships, and those with successful careers. Most people experience loneliness at some points in their lives, and some feel it very often. As a short term emotion, loneliness can be beneficial; it encourages the strengthening of relationships. Chronic loneliness on the other hand is widely considered harmful, with numerous reviews and meta-studies concluding it is a significant risk factor for poor mental and physical health outcomes.
Sprachlich legt das durchaus polemische Attribut ''toxic'' den irreführenden Kurzschluss nahe, dass Maskulinität bzw. männliches Verhalten ''per se'' als giftig zu verstehen sei (''The idea that all men are inherently bad for being men''),<ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=Eric Anderson |url=https://thebookofman.com/mind/masculinity/toxic-masculinity/ |titel='Toxic Masculinity' why we need to stop using the phrase |werk=The Book of Man |datum=2018-04-15 |sprache=en |abruf=2019-03-14}}</ref> was der Unschärfe der Formulierung geschuldet ist und einen umfassenden Diskurs darum angestoßen hat, welche männlichen Verhaltensweisen gesellschaftlich toleriert bzw. unterbunden werden sollten und wem die Verfügungsgewalt über derartige Bestimmungen zustehe. Dem Begriff wird außerdem [[Vertrauen|Misstrauen]] entgegengebracht, weil er als Modewort ausgehöhlt scheint<ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/word-of-the-year/word-of-the-year-2018 |titel=Word of the Year 2018 is... {{!}} Oxford Dictionaries |abruf=2019-03-14}}</ref><ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Nina Apin |Titel=Debatte um „toxische Männlichkeit“: Problematische Kerle |Sammelwerk=Die Tageszeitung: taz |Datum=2017-07-14 |ISSN=0931-9085 |Online=https://taz.de/Debatte-um-toxische-Maennlichkeit/!5426480/ |Abruf=2019-04-04}}</ref> und in der Hashtag-Kultur des 21. Jahrhunderts auf schlagwortartig verdichtete Thesen mit Anschuldigungscharakter verdichtet worden ist (z.&nbsp;B. #MasculinitySoFragile, #FailingMasculinity).<ref>https://twitter.com/HuffPostWomen/status/854394368115003393</ref><ref>https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/twitter-hashtag-failing-masculinity_us_58f62238e4b0bb9638e67f46?guccounter=1&guce_referrer_us=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_cs=fwZ3SrVsftQk8MI8_upf-w</ref><ref>https://mic.com/articles/125752/masculinity-so-fragile-hashtag-exposes-toxic-masculinity-standards#.EslfCKfbG</ref> [[Queer-Theorie|Queer]]-Feministischen Kritikern geht der Begriff nicht weit genug, da er impliziere, dass Männlichkeit „entgiftet“ werden könne, Männlichkeit aber als solche problematisch sei. Auch die Verwendung der Gift-Metapher wird wegen ihrer historischen Vorbelastung durch den Nationalsozialismus kritisiert.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Eike Sanders, Anna O. Berg und Judith Goetz (AK Fe.In) |Titel=Frauen*rechte und Frauen*hass: Antifeminismus und die Ethnisierung von Gewalt |Verlag=Verbrecher Verlag |Ort=Berlin |Datum=2020 |ISBN=978-3-95732-410-8 |Seiten=31ff.}}</ref>
 
Loneliness has long been a theme in literature, going back to the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]''. Yet academic study of loneliness was sparse until the late twentieth century. In the 21st century, loneliness has been increasingly recognised as a social problem, with both NGOs and governmental actors seeking to tackle it.
Die [[Psychologe]]n Martin Seager und John A. Barry bemängeln, dass es abseits [[Anekdotische Evidenz|anekdotischer Erzählungen]] für das Konzept der „toxischen Männlichkeit“ keine Belege gebe und kritisieren den diskriminierenden Charakter der Zuschreibung „toxic“. Der weitläufige Gebrauch dieser Zuschreibung, die mit dem männlichen Geschlecht in Verbindung steht, sei ein Zeichen von fehlender [[Empathie]] gegenüber Männern.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Martin Seager, John A. Barry |Hrsg=John A. Barry, Roger Kingerlee, Martin Seager, Luke Sullivan |Titel=Positive Masculinity: Including Masculinity as a Valued Aspect of Humanity |Sammelwerk=The Palgrave Handbook of Male Psychology and Mental Health |Band= |Nummer= |Auflage= |Verlag=Springer International Publishing |Ort=Cham |Datum=2019 |ISBN=978-3-030-04384-1 |Seiten=105–122 |DOI=10.1007/978-3-030-04384-1_6}}</ref> Ferner kritisieren Seager und Barry, dass es sich bei dieser Bezeichnung um ein [[Kognitive Verzerrung|kognitiv verzerrendes]] und negativ konnotiertes Label handele, zu dessen Konsequenzen unter anderem sich [[Selbsterfüllende Prophezeiung|selbsterfüllenden Prophezeiungen]] (vgl. [[Etikettierungsansatz]]) gehören würden.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Martin Seager, John A. Barry |Hrsg=John A. Barry, Roger Kingerlee, Martin Seager, Luke Sullivan |Titel=Cognitive Distortion in Thinking About Gender Issues: Gamma Bias and the Gender Distortion Matrix |Sammelwerk=The Palgrave Handbook of Male Psychology and Mental Health |Band= |Nummer= |Auflage= |Verlag=Springer International Publishing |Ort=Cham |Datum=2019 |ISBN=978-3-030-04384-1 |Seiten=87–104 |Fundstelle=hier: S. 101 |DOI=10.1007/978-3-030-04384-1_5}}</ref>
 
==Causes==
Die [[Medizingeschichte|Medizinhistorikerin]] Ali Haggett hält die Beschreibung von Gewalt und sexuellem Fehlverhalten als ''toxische Männlichkeit'' für mitverantwortlich dafür, dass die psychische Gesundheit speziell von Männern kaum untersucht werde. Schädliche Verhaltensweisen würden der ''toxischen Männlichkeit'' zugeschrieben anstatt die sozialen und emotionalen Gründe für dieses Verhalten zu untersuchen; Männern werde weniger Empathie entgegengebracht. In dem Klima, das von der #[[MeToo]]-Bewegung erzeugt worden sei und das die Auffassung festige, Frauen seien überall in Gefahr, sei es unwahrscheinlich, dass sich daran etwas ändert.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Ali Haggett |Titel=Preventing Mental Illness in Post-war |Sammelwerk=Preventing Mental Illness |Verlag=Springer International Publishing |Ort=Cham |Datum=2019 |ISBN=978-3-319-98698-2 |Seiten=257–280 |DOI=10.1007/978-3-319-98699-9_12}}</ref>
[[File:Thomas Wolfe 1937 1 (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|200px| [[Thomas Wolfe]] who in an often quoted passage stated "The whole conviction of my life now rests upon the belief that loneliness, far from being a rare and curious phenomenon, is the central and inevitable fact of human existence."<ref name = "Murthy2020"/> ]]
 
===Existential===
Andrea Waling kritisiert, dass das Konzept der ''toxischen Männlichkeit'' im Gegensatz zur „gesunden Männlichkeit“ aus einem Missverständnis von [[Raewyn Connell|Raewyn Connells]] Arbeit von 1987 über [[hegemoniale Männlichkeit]] entstanden sei. Für Waling ist der Begriff ''toxische Männlichkeit'' aus feministischer Sicht problematisch, weil er Männer als Opfer einer unvermeidlichen Pathologie darstelle. Es sei ein [[Essentialistisch|essentialistischer]] Ansatz, der soziale und materielle Einflüsse und die persönliche Verantwortung der Männer ignoriere. Des Weiteren kritisiert Waling, dass ''toxische Männlichkeit'' bestimmte traditionell männliche Eigenschaften ablehne, die in manchen Situationen angemessen seien.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Andrea Waling |Titel=Problematising ‘Toxic’ and ‘Healthy’ Masculinity for Addressing Gender Inequalities |Sammelwerk=Australian Feminist Studies |Band=34 |Nummer=101 |Datum=2019-07-03 |ISSN=0816-4649 |Seiten=362–375 |DOI=10.1080/08164649.2019.1679021}}</ref> Carol Harrington warnte davor, dass das Konzept im feministischen Kontext dazu führen könnte, strukturelle Probleme zu depolitisieren und einzig auf individuelles Fehlverhalten von Männern zu reduzieren.<ref name=":0" />
Loneliness has long been viewed as a [[human universal|universal]] condition which, at least to a moderate extent, is felt by everyone. From this perspective, some degree of loneliness is inevitable as the limitations of human life mean it is impossible for anyone to continually satisfy their inherent need for connection. Professors including Michele A. Carter and Ben Lazare Mijuskovic have written books and essays tracking the existential perspective and the many writers who have talked about it throughout history.<ref name = "Mijuskovic2012"/><ref>
{{cite web
|url= https://philosophicalsociety.com/Archives/Park%20Ridge%20Center%20Essay.htm
|title= Abiding Loneliness: An Existential Perspective on Loneliness
|work = Park Ridge Center for Health, Faith, And Ethics
|publisher= Philosophical Society.com
|year = 2003
|author = Michele A. Carter
|access-date=18 May 2020}}
</ref> [[Thomas Wolfe]]'s 1930s essay ''God's Lonely Man'' is frequently discussed in this regard; Wolfe makes the case that everyone imagines they are lonely in a special way unique to themselves, whereas really every single person sometimes suffers from loneliness. While agreeing that loneliness alleviation can be a good thing, those who take the existential view tend to doubt such efforts can ever be fully successful, seeing some level of loneliness as both unavoidable and even beneficial, as it can help people appreciate the joy of living.<ref name = "Murthy2020"/><ref name = "I&I"/>
 
===Cultural===
Der [[Kriminologe]] Michael Salter kritisiert, dass das Konzept der toxischen Männlichkeit die vielfältigen Ursachen für das Fehlverhalten von Männern verschleiere und es stattdessen einzig auf angeblich „krankhafte“ Anteile von Männlichkeit und kulturell bedingte Geschlechterkonstrukte reduziere. Dies würde zu teilweise unzureichenden und nicht spezifisch an die Gegebenheiten angepassten Gegenmaßnahmen führen. Die Ursachen für männliches Fehlverhalten seien nicht überall dieselben und es müssten auch materielle Einflüsse mit einbezogen werden. Das Argument liberaler Feministen über toxische Männlichkeit habe es beispielsweise der Alkoholindustrie erlaubt, durch den Fokus auf Männlichkeit den Zusammenhang zwischen Alkoholkonsum und häuslicher Gewalt zu verschleiern.<ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=Michael Salter |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2019/02/toxic-masculinity-history/583411/ |titel=The Problem With a Fight Against Toxic Masculinity |datum=2019-02-27 |sprache=en |abruf=2021-02-07}}</ref>
Culture is discussed as a cause of loneliness in two senses. [[Human migration|Migrants]] can suffer from loneliness due to missing their home culture. Studies have found this effect can be especially strong for students from countries in Asia with a collective culture, when they come to study at universities in more [[Individualism|individualist]] English speaking countries.<ref name ="Ami2015"/> Culture is also seen as a cause of loneliness in the sense that [[western culture]] may have been contributing to loneliness, ever since the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] began to favour individualism over older [[Communal work|communal]] values.<ref name = "I&I"/><ref name = "Alberti2019"/><ref name = "Murthy2020"/>
 
===Lack of meaningful relationships===
Der [[Musikwissenschaftler]] Sam de Boise sieht andererseits auch einen [[Backlash]] gegen den Begriff, der ihn als Beweis für eine Abwertung von Männlichkeit und Männern versteht und eine „existenzielle Gefahr“ für Männer behauptet. Antifeministischen Kritiker würden toxische Männlichkeit und ein historisch unveränderliches Bild von Mannsein vermischen. Der Begriff beziehe sich aber auf Männlichkeit, bestimmte Verhaltensweisen und Geschlechterkonstrukte, die auch dekonstruiert werden könnten, und nicht generell auf Männer.<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Sam de Boise |Titel=Editorial: is masculinity toxic? |Sammelwerk=NORMA |Band=14 |Nummer=3 |Datum=2019-07-03 |ISSN=1890-2138 |Seiten=147–151 |DOI=10.1080/18902138.2019.1654742}}</ref>
For many people the family of origin did not offer the trust building relationships needed to build a reference that lasts a lifetime and even in memory after the passing of a loved one. This can be due to parenting style, traditions, mental health issues including personality disorders and abusive family environments. Sometimes religious shunning is also present.
2019 sah Maya Salam von der Zeitung [[The New York Times]] den Begriff toxische Männlichkeit, der einst in den „Klassenzimmern der [[Frauenforschung]]“ zirkuliert habe, nun überall präsent. Ihrer Ansicht zufolge meint der Begriff nicht, dass alle Männer inhärent toxisch seien, sondern die stereotypen, repressiven Vorstellungen der männlichen [[Geschlechterrolle]] in einer Gesellschaft, die limitieren, welche Art von [[Emotion]]en und Verhaltensweisen Jungen und Männer an den Tag legen dürfen (und welche nicht).<ref>{{Literatur |Autor=Maya Salam |Titel=What Is Toxic Masculinity? |Sammelwerk=The New York Times |Datum=2019-01-22 |ISSN=0362-4331 |Online=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/22/us/toxic-masculinity.html |Abruf=2019-03-13}}</ref>
 
This impacts the ability of individuals to know themselves, to value themselves and to relate to others or to do so with great difficulty.
== Beispiele ==
 
Ein prominentes Beispiel ist [[Terry Crews]], der sich im Zuge der #MeToo-Bewegung am 10. Oktober 2017 auf Twitter öffentlich dazu bekannte<ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=Terry Crews |url=https://twitter.com/terrycrews/status/917838500061253632 |titel=My wife n I were at a Hollywood function last year... |werk=Twitter @terrycrews |datum=2017-10-10 |sprache=en |abruf=2019-03-14}}</ref>, im Februar 2016 auf einer Party von einem Hollywood-Produzenten sexuell belästigt worden zu sein, der ihm in den Schritt griff. Crews erstattete jedoch zunächst keine Anzeige und machte den Fall auch nicht publik, weil er Konsequenzen, gerade als schwarzer Mann im Showbusiness, befürchtete. Nach seinem öffentlichen Bekenntnis im Jahr 2017 wurde Crews von verschiedenen anderen männlichen Prominenten (darunter [[50 Cent]]<ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=ET Canada |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EQ7s-u-Alu8 |titel=50 Cent Mocks Terry Crews’ Assault |datum=2018-06-27 |abruf=2019-03-14}}</ref>, [[Tariq Nasheed]], [[Russell Simmons]] und [[D. L. Hughley]]<ref>{{Internetquelle |url=https://www.boredpanda.com/terry-crews-50-cent-sexual-assault-response/ |titel=Celebrities Mock Terry Crews Sexual Assault Claims Because He’s Too Strong To Get Assaulted, He Shuts Them Down |sprache=en-US |abruf=2019-03-14}}</ref>) auf Social-Media-Plattformen lächerlich gemacht, wieso so ein starker Mann wie er sich nicht selbst hätte verteidigen können. In seinem Statement, das Crews vor dem Senate Judiciary Committee gab, sagte er hierzu:
All these factors and many others are overlooked by the standard medical or psychological advice that recommends to go meet friends, family and to socialise. This isn't always possible when there is no one available to relate to and an inability to connect without the skills and knowledge on how to proceed. With time a person might become discouraged or develop apathy from numerous trials, failures or rejections brought on by the lack of interpersonal skills.
{{Quote box |quoted=true |bgcolor=#FFFFF0 |salign=center|quote= When my assault happened, quite honestly, I probably would have been laughed out of the police station. [...] This is how toxic masculinity permeates culture. As I told my story, I was told over and over that this was not abuse. That this was just a joke. That this was just horseplay.|source=– Terry Crews, under senatshøring<ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=C-SPAN |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZtI4eH1U2rY |titel=Terry Crews complete opening statement (C-SPAN) |datum=2018-06-26 |abruf=2019-03-14}}</ref><ref>{{Internetquelle |autor=Jessica M. Goldstein |url=https://thinkprogress.org/powerful-testimony-terry-crews-talks-about-sexual-assault-bc0e951bab34/ |titel=‘I believed no one would believe me’: Terry Crews’ powerful testimony on sexual assault |werk=Think Progress |datum=2018-06-27 |abruf=2019-03-14 |sprache=en-US}}</ref>|align=right|width=25em}}
 
As the rate of loneliness increases yearly among people of every age group and more so in the elderly, with known detrimental physical and psychological effects, there is a need to find new ways to connect people with each other and especially so at a time when a whole lot of the human attention is focused on electronic devices, it is a challenge. {{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}
 
===Relationship loss===
Loneliness is a very common, though often temporary, consequence of a [[relationship breakup]] or [[bereavement]]. The loss of a significant person in one's life will typically initiate a [[grief|grief response]]; in this situation, one might feel lonely, even while in the company of others. Loneliness can occur due to the disruption to one's [[social circle]], sometimes combined with [[homesickness]], which results from people moving away for work or education.<ref name = "Murthy2020"/><ref name = "Alberti2019"/>
 
===Situational===
All sorts of situations and events can cause loneliness, especially in combination with certain personality traits for susceptible individuals. For example, an [[extroverted]] person who is highly social is more likely to feel lonely if they are living somewhere with a low [[population density]], with fewer people for them to interact with. Loneliness can sometimes even be caused by events that might normally be expected to alleviate it: for example the birth of a child (if there is significant [[postpartum depression]]) or after getting married (especially if the marriage turns out to be unstable, overly disruptive to previous relationships, or emotionally cold.) In addition to being impacted by external events, loneliness can be aggravated by pre-existing mental health conditions like [[Dysthymia|chronic depression]] and [[anxiety]].<ref name = "Murthy2020"/><ref name = "Alberti2019"/>
 
===Self perpetuating===
Long term loneliness can cause various types of maladaptive social cognition, such as [[hypervigilance]] and [[social awkwardness]], which can make it harder for an individual to maintain existing relationships, or establish new ones. Various studies have found that therapy targeted at addressing this maladaptive cognition is the single most effective way of intervening to reduce loneliness, though it does not always work for everyone.<ref name="Cacioppo2016"/><ref name ="Masi2010"/><ref name ="AnnJarvisa2020"/>
 
===Social contagion===
Loneliness can spread through social groups like a disease. The mechanism for this involves the maladaptive cognition that often results from chronic loneliness. If a man loses a friend for whatever reason, this may increase his loneliness, resulting in him developing maladaptive cognition such as excessive neediness or suspicion of other friends. Hence leading to a further loss of human connection if he then goes on to split up with his remaining friends. Those other friends now become more lonely too, leading to a ripple effect of loneliness. Studies have however found that this contagion effect is not consistent - a small increase in loneliness does not always cause the maladaptive cognition. Also, when someone loses a friend, they will sometimes form new friendships or deepen other existing relationships.<ref name ="Dunbar2020review">{{cite journal
|author=[[Robin Dunbar]] |author2=Danilo Bzdok
|title=The Neurobiology of Social Distance
|journal=[[Trends in Cognitive Sciences]]
|volume= 24
|year= 2020
|issue= 9
|pages= 717–733
|doi= 10.1016/j.tics.2020.05.016
|pmid=32561254
|pmc=7266757
|doi-access= free
}}
</ref>
<ref name="Cacioppo2016">
{{cite web
|url= https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/feb/28/loneliness-is-like-an-iceberg-john-cacioppo-social-neuroscience-interview
|title= John Cacioppo: 'Loneliness is like an iceberg – it goes deeper than we can see'
|work= [[The Guardian]]
|author=Tim Adams
|date = 28 February 2016
|access-date=24 May 2020}}
</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Parker |first=Pope |url=http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/why-loneliness-can-be-contagious/ |title=Why loneliness can be contagious |access-date=10 December 2012 |work=The New York Times |date=1 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328120121/http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/why-loneliness-can-be-contagious/ |archive-date=28 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
|author=Christakis, N.A. |author2=Fowler, J.H.
|title=Social contagion theory: examining dynamic social networks and human behavior
|journal=[[Statistics in Medicine (journal)|Statistics in Medicine]]
|volume= 32
|year= 2013
|issue= 4
|pages= 556–577
|doi= 10.1002/sim.5408
|pmid=22711416
|pmc= 3830455
}}
</ref><ref>{{cite journal
|vauthors= Cacioppo JT, Fowler JH, Christakis NA
|title=Alone in the crowd: the structure and spread of loneliness in a large social network.
|journal=[[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]]
|volume= 97
|year= 2009
|issue= 6
|pages=977–991
|doi= 10.1037/a0016076
|pmid=19968414
|pmc= 2792572
}}
</ref>
 
===Internet===
{{see also|Digital media use and mental health}}
Studies have tended to find a moderate correlation between extensive internet use and loneliness, especially ones that draw on data from the 1990s, before internet use became widespread. Contradictory results have been found by studies investigating whether the association is simply a result of lonely people being more attracted to the internet, or if the internet can actually cause loneliness. The ''displacement hypothesis'' holds that some people chose to withdraw from real world social interactions so they can have more time for the internet. Excessive internet use can directly cause anxiety and depression, conditions which can contribute to loneliness - yet these factors may be offset by the internet's ability to facilitate interaction, and to empower people. Some studies found that internet use is a cause of loneliness, at least for some types of people.<ref>{{cite book |first=Carole |last=Hughes |year=1999 |title=The relationship of use of the Internet and loneliness among college students |type=PhD Thesis |publisher=Boston College |oclc=313894784}}{{page needed|date=July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1089/cpb.2007.0010 |title=Internet Use and Loneliness in Older Adults |year=2008 |last1=Sum |first1=Shima |last2=Mathews |first2=R. Mark |last3=Hughes |first3=Ian |last4=Campbell |first4=Andrew |journal=CyberPsychology & Behavior |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=208–11 |pmid=18422415|s2cid=206156298 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/480c2c1788e7c6dd11eb218e5d3338038aec2557 }}</ref> Others have found internet use can have a significant positive effect on reducing loneliness.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1089/109493102753770552 |title=In Defense of the Internet: The Relationship between Internet Communication and Depression, Loneliness, Self-Esteem, and Perceived Social Support |year=2002 |last1=Shaw |first1=Lindsay H. |last2=Gant |first2=Larry M. |journal=CyberPsychology & Behavior |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=157–71 |pmid=12025883|citeseerx=10.1.1.563.2946 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1989244,00.html | work=Time | title=Is the Internet the Secret to Happiness? | date=14 May 2010 | access-date=25 March 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425044134/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1989244,00.html | archive-date=25 April 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref> The authors of meta studies and reviews from about 2015 and later have tended to argue that there is a bidirectional causal relationship between loneliness and internet use. Excessive use, especially if passive, can increase loneliness. While moderate use, especially by users who engage with others rather than just passively consume content, can increase [[social connection]] and reduce loneliness.<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Moretta, T. |author2=Buodo, G.
|title=Problematic Internet Use and Loneliness: How Complex Is the Relationship? A Short Literature Review.
|journal=Current Addiction Reports
|volume= 7
|year= 2020
|issue= 2
|pages= 125–136
|doi= 10.1007/s40429-020-00305-z
|s2cid=212620349
}}
</ref><ref name = "overview2018"/><ref>{{cite journal
|author=Nowland, R. |author2=Necka, E. A. |author3=[[John T. Cacioppo|Cacioppo, J. T.]]
|title=Loneliness and Social Internet Use: Pathways to Reconnection in a Digital World?
|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science
|volume= 13
|year= 2018
|issue= 1
|pages= 70–87
|doi= 10.1177/1745691617713052
|pmid=28937910 |doi-access= free
}}
</ref>
 
===Genetics===
In 2016, the first [[Genome]]-wide association study of loneliness found that the heredity of loneliness is about 14-27%. So while genes play a role in determining how much loneliness a person may feel, they are less of a factor than individual experiences and the environment. Previous smaller studies however, had estimated that loneliness may be between 37 - 55% hereditable.<ref>{{cite journal
|authors= Jianjun Gao, Lea K Davis, Amy B Hart, Sandra Sanchez-Roige, Lide Han, John T Cacioppo, Abraham A Palmer
|title=Genome-Wide Association Study of Loneliness Demonstrates a Role for Common Variation
|journal=[[Neuropsychopharmacology (journal)|Neuropsychopharmacology]]
|volume= 42
|year= 2016
|issue= 4
|pages= 811–821
|doi= 10.1038/npp.2016.197
|pmid= 27629369
|pmc= 5312064
}}
</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10519-005-6040-8 |title=Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Loneliness in Adults: The Netherlands Twin Register Study |year=2005 |last1=Boomsma |first1=Dorret I. |last2=Willemsen |first2=Gonneke |last3=Dolan |first3=Conor V. |last4=Hawkley |first4=Louise C. |last5=Cacioppo |first5=John T. |journal=Behavior Genetics |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=745–52 |pmid=16273322|citeseerx=10.1.1.453.498 |s2cid=674438 }}</ref>
 
===Other===
People making long driving commutes have reported dramatically higher feelings of loneliness (as well as other negative health impacts).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lowrey |first1=Annie |title=Long commutes cause obesity, neck pain, loneliness, divorce, stress, and insomnia. |url=https://slate.com/business/2011/05/long-commutes-cause-obesity-neck-pain-loneliness-divorce-stress-and-insomnia.html |website=Slate |access-date=19 January 2020 |language=en |date=26 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Paumgarten |first1=Nick |title=There and Back Again |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/04/16/there-and-back-again |magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=19 January 2020 |language=en |date=9 April 2007}}</ref>
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